A prospective assessment of readiness to implement an early detection of cerebral palsy pathway in a neonatal intensive care setting using the PARIHS framework.

BACKGROUND: Early detection of cerebral palsy (CP) is possible through targeted use of assessment tools. Changes in practice are needed to facilitate this shift towards earlier diagnosis of CP in New Zealand. The aim of this study was to prospectively evaluate readiness to implement an early detection of CP pathway within a level 3 neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) setting prior to any implementation taking place. The PARIHS (Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services) framework was engaged to assess readiness by highlighting determinants that influence implementation outcomes as either barriers or enablers. METHODS: A mixed methods approach was used. Firstly, an online staff survey assessed PARIHS sub-elements using Likert scores and free text with the intent to develop a baseline understanding of staff views. Secondly, focus groups were conducted to gain deeper understanding of barriers and enablers to implementation. Participants included health professionals involved in the first 6 months of life. Data were analysed to outline the barriers and enablers of implementation under the Evidence and Context constructs of the PARIHS framework. RESULTS: Twenty-seven participants completed the survey, and 20 participants participated in eight focus groups and two individual interviews. Quantitative (survey) findings found 65% agreement around the usefulness of research evidence on early CP detection; however, ≤ 45% felt current resources (i.e. human, financial and IT) were sufficient for implementation. Qualitative findings (survey and focus groups) highlighted key staff concerns around resources, family impact (creating unnecessary stress), and equity (barriers to participation). Staff wanted information regarding how international evidence translates to the local context and availability of timely follow-up services. Sub-elements within the Evidence and Context constructs were rated as either mixed or low (except for Evidence - Research, rated as high), overall indicating that Auckland NICU is at the early stages of readiness to implement the early CP detection pathway. CONCLUSION: This work may resonate with other neonatal services preparing to implement CP early detection pathways. Resourcing has a major role in facilitating implementation of pathways and uncertainty about resources is a barrier to implementation. Ongoing focus on building consensus and funding is required to ensure optimal uptake.

Partnering Early to Provide for Infants At Risk of Cerebral Palsy (PEPI ARC): protocol for a feasibility study of a regional hub for early detection of cerebral palsy in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Introduction: Cerebral palsy (CP) can now be diagnosed in infants with identified CP risk factors as early as three months of age; however, many barriers prevent equitable access to early detection pathways. The "Partnering Early to Provide for Infants At Risk of Cerebral Palsy" feasibility study (PEPI ARC) seeks to trial a new approach to decrease inequitable health service in Aotearoa New Zealand for high-risk infants and their families. PEPI ARC incorporates face-to-face clinics, an in-person and virtual Hub, and the use of telehealth to enable flexible access to CP assessments and support for health professionals in early CP detection. Methods and analysis: A non-randomised feasibility study was conducted from a tertiary Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) in Wellington and included seven regional referral centres, servicing nearly 30% of the total population in New Zealand (NZ). The families of infants with a high risk of neurodevelopmental impairment and health professionals interacting with the Hub were invited to participate. Mixed methods were used to evaluate the (i) equitable implementation of an early detection pathway, (ii) acceptability, (iii) demand among families and health professionals, (iv) efficacy in relation to reducing the age of receipt of CP diagnosis, and (v) the experiences around communication and information sharing. Ethics and dissemination: The NZ Health and Disability Ethics Committee approved this study (HDEC: 2022 FULL 13434). The findings will be disseminated in peer-reviewed journals, in conference presentations, and via professional networks. Clinical trial registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN12623000600640.

Prioritized strategies to improve diagnosis and early management of cerebral palsy for both Maori and non-Maori families.

AIM: To identify prioritized strategies to support improvements in early health service delivery around the diagnosis and management of cerebral palsy (CP) for both Maori and non-Maori individuals. METHOD: Using a participatory approach, health care professionals and the parents of children with CP attended co-design workshops on the topic of early diagnosis and management of CP. Health design researchers facilitated two 'discovery' (sharing experiences and ideas) and two 'prototyping' (solution-focused) workshops in Aotearoa, New Zealand. A Maori health service worker co-facilitated workshops for Maori families. RESULTS: Between 7 and 13 participants (14 health care professionals, 12 parents of children with CP across all functional levels) attended each workshop. The discovery workshops revealed powerful stories about early experiences and needs within clinician-family communication and service provision. The prototyping workshops revealed priorities around communication, and when, what, and how information is provided to families; recommendations were co-created around what should be prioritized within a resource to aid health care navigation. INTERPRETATION: There is a critical need for improved communication, support, and guidance, as well as education, for families navigating their child with CP through the health care system. Further input from families and health care professionals partnering together will continue to guide strategies to improve health care service delivery using experiences as a mechanism for change.

Deep-Learning Markerless Tracking of Infant General Movements using Standard Video Recordings.

Monitoring spontaneous General Movements (GM) of infants 6-20 weeks post-term age is a reliable tool to assess the quality of neurodevelopment in early infancy. Abnormal or absent GMs are reliable prognostic indicators of whether an infant is at risk of developing neurological impairments and disorders such as cerebral palsy (CP). Therapeutic interventions are most effective at improving neuromuscular outcomes if administered in early infancy. Current clinical protocols require trained assessors to rate videos of infant movements, a time-intensive task. This work proposes a simple, inexpensive, and broadly applicable markerless pose-estimation approach for automatic infant movement tracking using conventional video recordings from handheld devices (e.g., tablets and mobile phones). We leverage the enhanced capabilities of deep-learning technology in image processing to identify 12 anatomical locations (3 per limb) in each video frame, tracking a baby's natural movement throughout the recordings. We validate the capability of resnet152 and a mobile-net-v2-1 to identify body-parts in unseen frames from a full-term male infant, using a novel automatic unsupervised approach that fuses likelihood outputs of a Kalman filter and the deep-nets. Both deep-net models were found to perform very well in the identification of anatomical locations in the unseen data with high average Percentage of Correct Keypoints (aPCK) performances of >99.65% across all locations.Clinical relevance-Results of this research confirm the feasibility of a low-cost and publicly accessible technology to automatically track infants' GMs and diagnose those at higher risk of developing neurological conditions early, when clinical interventions are most effective.

A Mixed-Methods Feasibility Study of a Gamified Therapy Prescription App for Children with Neurodisability.

AIM: Determine the feasibility of a gamified therapy (occupational therapy, physiotherapy, speech pathology) prescription app developed for children with neurodisability for delivering school and home therapy programs (the Zingo app). METHOD: A mixed-methods feasibility study was conducted with children (and their parents, therapists, and teachers) with neurodisability (n = 8, female= 5) who were prescribed a 4-week individualized therapy program by their usual treating therapist using Zingo. Primary outcome measures were program adherence, engagement, app quality, and user experience, collected with quantitative and qualitative methods. RESULTS: Mean adherence to the program was 58.0% (SD 27.2). Our combined Engagement Index (EI) score was 74.4% (SD 11.7). App quality measured using Mobile Application Rating Scale- User version was 4.6/5 (SD 0.7, n = 6) for parents, 4.6/5 (SD 0.5, n = 5) for teachers, and 4.4/5 (SD 0.6, n = 6) for therapists. Thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews yielded a primary theme of "app as motivator" for therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Adherence findings were affected by COVID-19 outbreak however remain comparable with other studies in this cohort. EI findings compared favorably with other studies. The findings are supportive of the feasibility of Zingo for delivering home and school therapy programs for children with neurodisability and was found to motivate therapy program completion.

Clinical functional outcome measures for children with cerebral palsy after gait corrective orthopaedic surgery: A scoping review.

AIM: To identify the most frequently reported non-instrumented measures of gait, activity, and participation in children with cerebral palsy (CP) after undergoing gait corrective orthopaedic surgery. METHOD: Four databases were searched from database inception to the 9th December 2021 for studies that evaluated functional outcomes for children with CP under 18 years undergoing gait corrective orthopaedic surgery. RESULTS: Of 547 citations, 44 publications (n = 3535 participants, n = 1789 males, mean age 10 years 5 months [SD = 3 years 3 months], Gross Motor Function Classification System levels I-III at the time of surgery) were eligible for inclusion. Fourteen different outcome measures were used: one measure of gait, 10 measures of activity, and three measures of participation. Gait was measured with the Edinburgh Visual Gait Scale (EVGS; 4 out of 44). The most common activity and participation measures were the Functional Mobility Scale (FMS; 15 out of 44) and Pediatric Outcomes Data Collection Instrument (11 out of 44) respectively. No studies reported a combination of gait, activity, and participation measures. INTERPRETATION: The EVGS and FMS should be considered as core outcome measures in gait corrective orthopaedic surgery, while a measure of participation is unclear. Additional considerations for developing a comprehensive suite of outcomes include identifying a combination of clinical measures and performance-reflective questionnaires that are standardized for children with CP undergoing surgery and meaningful to clinicians and families.

The efficacy of split tibial tendon transfers on functional gait outcomes for children and youth with cerebral palsy and spastic equinovarus foot deformities.

To systematically review the efficacy of split tendon transfer surgery on gait-related outcomes for children and adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP) and spastic equinovarus foot deformity. Five databases (CENTRAL, CINAHL, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science) were systematically screened for studies investigating split tibialis anterior or split tibialis posterior tendon transfer for spastic equinovarus foot deformity, with gait-related outcomes (published pre-September 2022). Study quality and evidence were assessed using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies, the Risk of Bias In Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions, and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation. Overall, 17 studies (566 feet) were included: 13 studies used clinical grading criteria to report a postoperative 'success' of 87% (75% to 100%), 14 reported on orthotic use with 88% reduced postoperative use, and one study reported on ankle kinematics improvements. Ten studies reported post-surgical complications at a rate of 11/390 feet (2.8%), but 84 feet (14.8%) had recurrent varus (68 feet, 12%) or occurrence of valgus (16 feet, 2.8%). Only one study included a patient-reported outcome measure (pain). Split tendon transfers are an effective treatment for children and youth with CP and spastic equinovarus foot deformities. Clinical data presented can be used for future study designs; a more standardized functional and patient-focused approach to evaluating outcomes of surgical intervention of gait may be warranted.

The Biomechanics of Healthy Older Adults Rising from the Floor Independently.

A third of older adults will fall each year and many will not be injured. Getting up from the floor in a timely manner is important, however it is unclear what technique older adults use to get themselves up off the ground unassisted, whether there are differences between men and women in getting up and what functional joint kinematics are used to rise from the floor. This study included a convenience sample of 20 older adults (65+ years) to answer these questions. Participants completed a series of movement tasks (i.e., rising from the floor using their own technique, a specified technique, walking 10 m and five repeated sit-to-stands), with temporospatial and joint kinematic data captured using an 18-camera 3D Vicon motion analysis system. Results found three techniques preferred by participants; the sit-up (n = 12), side-sit (n = 4) and the roll over (n = 4), with no differences found between sexes. The sit-up technique requires a higher degree of hip and knee flexion to complete compared to the side-sit and roll over. It may be beneficial for health professionals to work with older adults to identify their preferred technique for rising from the floor and encourage regular practice of this skill.

The reliability of the measurement of muscle volume using magnetic resonance imaging in typically developing infants by two raters.

To assess intra-rater and inter-rater reliability of the manual segmentation of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) for the in vivo measurement of infant muscle volume of the knee extensor and flexor muscles by two raters. Muscles of the knee extensor and flexor muscle of ten typically developing infants (86 days ± 7 days) were scanned with MRI (Proton density sequence). Scans were then segmented using Slicer software, and volumes rendered by two raters. Intra-rater and inter-rater reliability were assessed using intra-class correlation (ICC), with mean difference (MD), standard error of the mean (SEM), and minimal detectable change (MDC) for each muscle calculated. ICCs for Intra-rater reliability of the segmentation process for the muscle volume of the muscles of the knee extensors and flexor muscles were 0.901-0.972, and 0.776-0.945 respectively, with inter-rater reliabilities between 0.914-0.954 and 0.848-0.978, for the knee extensor and flexors muscles respectively. For intra-rater reliability, MD ≤ - 0.47 cm3, MDCs for were < 1.09 cm3 and for inter-rater MD ≤ - 1.40 cm3, MDCs for were < 1.63 cm3 for all muscles. MRI segmentation for muscle volumes showed good to excellent reliability, though given the small volumes of the muscles themselves, variations between raters are amplified. Care should be taken in the reporting and interpretation of infant muscle volume.

Intervention Mapping of a Gamified Therapy Prescription App for Children With Disabilities: User-Centered Design Approach.

BACKGROUND: Mobile health (mHealth) apps for children are increasing in availability and scope. Therapy (physiotherapy, speech pathology, and occupational therapy) prescription apps to improve home or school program adherence work best when developed to be highly engaging for children and when they incorporate behavior change techniques (BCTs) within their design. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to describe the development of a user-centered therapy prescription app for children (aged 6-12 years) with neurodevelopmental disabilities (eg, cerebral palsy, autism spectrum disorder, and intellectual disability) incorporating intervention mapping (IM) and gamified design. METHODS: We used an iterative, user-centered app development model incorporating the first 3 steps of IM. We conducted a needs analysis with user feedback from our previous mHealth app study, a literature review, and a market audit. Change objectives were then specified in alignment with the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness identified in self-determination theory. From these objectives, we then selected BCTs, stipulating parameters for effectiveness and how each BCT would be operationalized. A gamification design was planned and implemented focusing on maximizing engagement in children. In total, 2 rounds of consultations with parents, teachers, and therapists and 1 round of prototype app testing with children were conducted to inform app development, with a final iteration developed for further testing. RESULTS: The IM process resulted in the specification of app elements, self-determination theory-informed BCTs, that were embedded into the app design. The gamification design yielded the selection of a digital pet avatar with a fantasy anime visual theme and multiple layers of incentives earned by completing prescribed therapy activities. Consultation groups with professionals working with children with disabilities (4 therapists and 3 teachers) and parents of children with disabilities (n=3) provided insights into the motivation of children and the pragmatics of implementing app-delivered therapy programs that informed the app development. User testing with children with disabilities (n=4) highlighted their enthusiasm for the app and the need for support in the initial phase of learning the app. App quality testing (Mobile Application Rating Scale-user version) with the children yielded means (out of 5) of 4.5 (SD 0.8) for engagement, 3.3 (SD 1.6) for function, 3.3 (SD 1.7) for aesthetics, and 4.3 (SD 1.1) for subjective quality. CONCLUSIONS: mHealth apps designed for children can be greatly enhanced with a systematic yet flexible development process considering the specific contextual needs of the children with user-centered design, addressing the need for behavior change using the IM process, and maximizing engagement with gamification and strong visual design.

Prioritizing indigenous health equity in health registers: an environmental scan of strategies for equitable ascertainment and quality data.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral palsy (CP) registers serve as instrumental tools to support development of care pathways, preventative strategies, and health gains. Such health gains, however, are not always universal, with Indigenous health inequities common. To support Indigenous health, health registers need complete, consistent, and high-quality data. The aim of this study was to identify perceived barriers to the ascertainment of Indigenous peoples on health registers and to collate strategies supporting comprehensive ascertainment and achievement of high-quality Indigenous data. METHODS: Environmental scanning methods were utilized within a Kaupapa Maori theoretical framework, which aims to produce research that is transformational and supportive of Indigenous health gain. Knowledge and insights were obtained from CP registers in countries with Indigenous populations and complemented by information from health registers in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ). Data collection methods included an online survey and scan of organizational websites. Data extraction focused on general information about the register, barriers to ascertainment, and strategies to support ascertainment and high data quality. RESULTS: 52 registers were identified, 20 completed the survey and 19 included in the study (CP registers, n = 10, NZ health registers, n = 9). Web scan data were included for the other 32 registers (CP registers, n = 21, NZ health registers, n = 11). Indigenous health equity was identified in the visions and aims of only two health registers. Ethnicity data collection was identified in nearly three quarters of survey respondents and a limited number of organizational websites. Over half of survey respondents described system, health provider/service, or workforce barriers to ascertainment. Strategies were categorized into collaboration, health provider/service, workforce, and systems-levels. Indigenous-specific strategies were limited and focused on personal behaviour and access to registration. CONCLUSIONS: CP and other health registers can have a significant role in identifying and addressing Indigenous health inequities. However, this is not currently an overt priority for many registers in this study and few registers describe ascertainment and data quality strategies specific to Indigenous peoples. Significant opportunity exists for health registers to be accountable and to implement approaches to support Indigenous health equity, address structural determinants of inequities, and achieve health gain for all.

A statistical shape model of soleus muscle morphology in spastic cerebral palsy.

This study investigated morphological characteristics of the soleus muscle in cerebral palsy (CP) and typically developing (TD) cohorts using a statistical shape model and differentiated dominant features between the two cohorts. We generated shape models of CP and TD cohorts to characterize dominant features within each. We then generated a combined shape model of both CP and TD to assess deviations of the cohorts' soleuses from a common mean shape, and statistically analysed differences between the cohorts. The shape models revealed similar principal components (PCs) with different variance between groups. The CP shape model yielded a distinct feature (superior-inferior shift of the broad central region) accounting for 8.1% of the model's cumulative variance. The combined shape model presented two PCs where differences arose between CP and TD cohorts: size and aspect ratio of length-width-thickness. The distinct appearance characteristic in the CP model-described above-may implicate impaired muscle function in children with CP. Overall, children with CP had smaller muscles that also tended to be long, thin, and narrow. Shape modelling captures dominant morphological features of structures, which was used here to quantitatively describe CP muscles and further probe our understanding of the disease's impact on the muscular system.

Tool Use for Early Detection of Cerebral Palsy: A Survey of Spanish Pediatric Physical Therapists.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to assess the use of diagnostic assessment tools in pediatric physical therapy practice in Spain. Best practice recommendations indicate the timely use of key assessment tools to reduce the age of diagnosis of cerebral palsy (CP). METHODS: Pediatric physical therapists currently working in Spain in early intervention were recruited through targeted physical therapy entities. They were invited to complete the purpose-developed electronic survey, consisting of 45 multiple-choice questions, with 5 thematic blocks. RESULTS: Results from 140 anonymous respondents were analyzed. The average reported age when CP was suspected was 12.6 months. Most used the child's clinical history (88.1%), the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (41.3%), and Vojta Assessment Procedure (32.1%) to assess and detect CP. General Movements Assessment (25.7%) and Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination (28.4%) were used infrequently. CONCLUSIONS: Currently, pediatric physical therapists in Spain rely on clinical history and outdated tools to identify children with CP.Digital Abstract available at: http://links.lww.com/PPT/A361 (English).Digital Abstract available at: http://links.lww.com/PPT/A362 (Spanish).

Neonatal Neuroimaging in Neonatal Intensive Care Graduates Who Subsequently Develop Cerebral Palsy.

Cerebral palsy is a common cause of physical disability. The New Zealand Cerebral Palsy Register (NZCPR) was established in 2015 and reports national data. Internationally, an early CP diagnosis has been a focus, with imaging and clinical tools used to enable early accurate detection. Accordingly, guidelines are being developed for New Zealand, including a specific pathway for high-risk neonatal intensive care (NICU) graduates, reflecting the high rate of CP in this group. To inform this work, we reviewed imaging data from a retrospective NICU cohort identified from the NZCPR. In these 140 individuals with CP and a confirmed NICU admission during 2000-2019 inclusive, imaging frequency, modality, and rate of abnormality was determined. Overall, 114 (81.4%) had imaging performed in the NICU, but the frequency and modality used varied by gestational subgroup. For infants born at less than 32 weeks gestation, 53/55 had routine imaging with ultrasound, and IVH was graded as none or mild (grade 1-2) in 35 or severe (grade 3-4) in 18 infants. For the 34 infants born between 32-36 weeks gestation, only 13/19 imaged in the NICU were reported as abnormal. For 51 term-born infants, 41/42 imaged in the NICU with MRI had abnormal results.

Indigenous health equity in health register ascertainment and data quality: a narrative review.

BACKGROUND: Health registers play an important role in monitoring distribution of disease and quality of care; however, benefit is limited if ascertainment (i.e., the process of finding and recruiting people on to a register) and data quality (i.e., the accuracy, completeness, reliability, relevance, and timeliness of data) are poor. Indigenous peoples experience significant health inequities globally, yet health data for, and about, Indigenous peoples is often of poor quality. This narrative review aimed to (i) identify perceived barriers for the ascertainment of Indigenous peoples on health registers, and (ii) collate strategies identified and used by health registers to support comprehensive ascertainment and high-quality data for Indigenous peoples. METHODS: A Kaupapa Maori theoretical framework was utilized to guide this work. Four electronic databases were systematically searched for original articles and screened for eligibility. Studies involving health registers with Indigenous population(s) identified were included if either ascertainment or data quality strategies were described. Data extraction focused on the reporting of research involving Indigenous peoples using the CONSIDER checklist domains, ascertainment, and data quality. RESULTS: Seventeen articles were included spanning publication between 1992 and 2020. Aspects of four of eight CONSIDER domains were identified to be included in the reporting of studies. Barriers to ascertainment were themed as relating to 'ethnicity data collection and quality', 'systems and structures', 'health services/health professionals', and 'perceptions of individual and community-level barriers'. Strategies to support ascertainment were categorized as 'collaboration', 'finding people', and 'recruitment processes'. Categorized strategies to support data quality were 'collaboration', 'ethnicity data collection and quality', 'systems-level strategies', and 'health service/health professional-level strategies'. CONCLUSIONS: Poor-quality data for Indigenous peoples in health registers prevents the achievement of health equity and exemplifies inaction in the face of need. When viewed through a critical structural determinants lens, there are visible gaps in the breadth of strategies, particularly relating to the inclusion of Indigenous peoples in health register and research governance, and actions to identify and address institutional racism. Indigenous led research, meaningful collaboration, and a sharing of knowledge and experiences between health registers is recommended to enable research and health registers that support Indigenous self-determination and health equity.

The reliability and validity of triceps surae muscle volume assessment using freehand three-dimensional ultrasound in typically developing infants.

This study assessed the intra-acquirer, intra- and inter-processor reliability, and validity of the in vivo assessment of the medial gastrocnemius (MG), lateral gastrocnemius (LG) and soleus (SOL) muscle volumes using freehand 3D ultrasound (3DUS) in typically developing infants. Reliability assessments of freehand 3DUS were undertaken in infants across three ages groups: three, six and twelve months of age, with validity testing completed against magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in infants at 3 months of age. Freehand 3DUS scanning was carried out by a single acquirer, with two independent processors manually segmenting images to render volumes. MRI images were segmented independently by a separate processor, with the volumes compared to those obtained via freehand 3DUS. Reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation (ICC), coefficient of variance (CV) and minimal detectable change (MDC) across each assessment time point. Validity was assessed using the limits of agreement. ICCs for intra-acquirer reliability of the acquisition process for freehand 3DUS ranged from 0.91 to 0.99 across all muscles. ICCs for intra-processor and inter-processor reliability for the segmentation process of freehand 3DUS ranged from 0.80 to 0.98 across all muscles. Acceptable levels of agreement between muscle volume obtained by freehand 3DUS and MRI were found for all muscles; however, freehand 3DUS overestimated muscle volume of MG and LG and underestimate the SOL compared with MRI, with average absolute differences of MG = 0.3 ml, LG = 0.3 ml and Sol = 1.2 ml. Freehand 3DUS is a reliable method for measuring in vivo triceps surae muscle volume in typically developing infants. We conclude that freehand 3DUS is a useful tool to assess changes in muscle volume in response to growth and interventions in infants.

Typical m. triceps surae morphology and architecture measurement from 0 to 18 years: A narrative review.

The aim of this review was to report on the imaging modalities used to assess morphological and architectural properties of the m. triceps surae muscle in typically developing children, and the available reliability analyses. Scopus and MEDLINE (Pubmed) were searched systematically for all original articles published up to September 2020 measuring morphological and architectural properties of the m. triceps surae in typically developing children (18 years or under). Thirty eligible studies were included in this analysis, measuring fibre bundle length (FBL) (n = 11), pennation angle (PA) (n = 10), muscle volume (MV) (n = 16) and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) (n = 4). Three primary imaging modalities were utilised to assess these architectural parameters in vivo: two-dimensional ultrasound (2DUS; n = 12), three-dimensional ultrasound (3DUS; n = 9) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI; n = 6). The mean age of participants ranged from 1.4 years to 18 years old. There was an apparent increase in m. gastrocnemius medialis MV and pCSA with age; however, no trend was evident with FBL or PA. Analysis of correlations of muscle variables with age was limited by a lack of longitudinal data and methodological variations between studies affecting outcomes. Only five studies evaluated the reliability of the methods. Imaging methodologies such as MRI and US may provide valuable insight into the development of skeletal muscle from childhood to adulthood; however, variations in methodological approaches can significantly influence outcomes. Researchers wishing to develop a model of typical muscle development should carry out longitudinal architectural assessment of all muscles comprising the m. triceps surae utilising a consistent approach that minimises confounding errors.

"It Should Have Been Given Sooner, and We Should Not Have to Fight for It": A Mixed-Methods Study of the Experience of Diagnosis and Early Management of Cerebral Palsy.

Listening to the family experience is integral to identifying areas of strength and for improvement in health service delivery around diagnosis and early management of cerebral palsy (CP). Families of children with a diagnosis of CP were invited to complete a purpose-developed electronic survey that included items around the timing of diagnosis, their experiences and satisfaction. It also allowed families to expand on their experiences through free text. Of the 57 families responding, 49% of children functioned at Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) levels I or II, 8% at GMFCS level III and 23% at GMFCS levels IV or V. 51% of participants were satisfied or very satisfied with the diagnosis experience, 18% were neutral about the experience and 31% were dissatisfied or very dissatisfied. Though the findings of this study may be subject to selection bias, perceived delays in the receipt of diagnosis of CP appeared common with 60% of participants indicating concerns about their child by <6 months of age but only 21% provided with a diagnosis of CP <6 months of age. Approximately 18% of families experienced a delay of more than 12 months. Thirty-four (61%) participants noted a delay between referrals to a service and receipt of service management/therapy. Common themes impacting on families' experience in the diagnosis and health service delivery journey related to provision of information, and the style of communication, with both direct and ongoing communication styles common for greater family satisfaction. Overall, families desired the diagnosis experience to be informative and timely, with early follow up support and assistance with health sector navigation.

Measuring skeletal muscle morphology and architecture with imaging modalities in children with cerebral palsy: a scoping review.

AIM: To investigate the use of ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methodologies to assess muscle morphology and architecture in children with cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: A scoping review was conducted with systematic searches of Medline, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and PsycInfo for all original articles published up to January 2019 utilizing ultrasound and/or MRI to determine morphological and architectural properties of lower limb skeletal muscle in children with CP. RESULTS: Eighty papers used ultrasound (n=44), three-dimensional ultrasound (n=16), or MRI (n=20) to measure at least one muscle parameter in children and adolescents with CP. Most research investigated single muscles, predominantly the medial gastrocnemius muscle, included children classified in Gross Motor Function Classification System levels I (n=62) and II (n=65), and assessed fascicle length (n=35) and/or muscle volume (n=35). Only 21 papers reported reliability of imaging techniques. Forty-six papers assessed measures of Impairment (n=39), Activity (n=24), and Participation (n=3). INTERPRETATION: Current research study design, variation in methodology, and preferences towards investigation of isolated muscles may oversimplify the complexities of CP muscle but provide a foundation for the understanding of the changes in muscle parameters in children with CP. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Current evidence is biased towards the medial gastrocnemius muscle and more functionally able children with cerebral palsy (CP). Variations in imaging techniques and joint positioning limit comparisons between studies. Clinimetric testing of parameters of CP muscle is not always considered. Assessment of parameter(s) of muscle with measures of participation is sparse.

Clinical practice of health professionals working in early detection for infants with or at risk of cerebral palsy across New Zealand.

AIM: A diagnosis of cerebral palsy (CP) can, and should, be made as early as possible. This work describes current clinical practice around the awareness and use of diagnostic tools for the detection of CP in New Zealand (NZ). METHODS: A purpose-developed survey distributed electronically to NZ clinicians working with young children with or at risk of CP. RESULTS: A total of 159 clinicians (including paediatricians, physiotherapists and occupational therapists) participated in this cross-sectional study. Ninety-six percent were aware that a diagnosis of CP can be made by 12 months of age, with high levels of awareness of the use of magnetic resonance imaging (94%), Prechtl's qualitative assessment of general movements (GMs) (70%) and Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination (HINE) (77%). Only 40% were aware of the HINE optimality scoring. Fifty-four clinicians provided a diagnosis of CP as part of their role: 48% never used the GMs or HINE to assess children <1 year, and 57% never used the HINE for children between 1 and 2 years. Clinicians not providing a diagnosis within their professional role (n = 104) also indicated infrequent use of assessment tools with 74% and 54% never using the GM's or HINE (respectively) in their assessment of children at risk of CP. Barriers to use included lack of time and funding, lack of clear pathways and management support. CONCLUSION: Despite high awareness, current use of international best practice tools in NZ clinical practice appears low. Multiple barriers are reported to the use of these tools, which need to be addressed to improve the timeliness of diagnosis.